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	<title>Center for a Stateless Society &#187; Roderick T. Long</title>
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		<title>What Social Animals Owe to Each Other</title>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Apr 2014 19:00:06 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Sheldon Richman]]></dc:creator>
				<category><![CDATA[Feature Articles]]></category>
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		<category><![CDATA[Roderick T. Long]]></category>
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		<description><![CDATA[If I were compelled to summarize the libertarian philosophy’s distinguishing feature while standing on one foot, I’d say the following: Every person owes it to all other persons not to aggress them. This is known as the nonaggression principle, or NAP. What is the nature of this obligation? The first thing to notice is that...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>If I were compelled to summarize the libertarian philosophy’s distinguishing feature while standing on one foot, I’d say the following: Every person owes it to all other persons not to aggress them. This is known as the nonaggression principle, or NAP.</p>
<p>What is the nature of this obligation?</p>
<p>The first thing to notice is that it is unchosen. I never agreed not to aggress against others. Others never agreed not to aggress against me. So if I struck you and you objected, you would not accept as my defense, “I never agreed not to strike you.”</p>
<p>Even an explicit agreement rests on an unchosen obligation. Let’s say you lent me five dollars, I refused to repay the loan, and when you demanded repayment, I said, “Why am I obligated to repay the money?” You would probably reply, “Because you agreed to repay me.” If I replied, “True, but when did I agree to abide by my agreements?,” what would you say? If you said that failure to repay constituted aggression, and I replied that I never agreed not to aggress against you, we’d be back where we started.</p>
<p>Of course this would point the way to absurdity — an infinite regress of agreements to keep my agreements. We would get nowhere. There has to be a starting point.</p>
<p>If I were to ask, “<em>Why</em> do we owe it to others not to aggress against them,” what would you say? I presume some answer rooted in facts would be offered because the alternative would be to say this principle has no basis whatsoever, that it’s just a free-floating principle, like an iceberg. That would amount to saying the principle has no binding force. It’s just a whim, which might not be shared by others. In other words, if a nonlibertarian demands to know why he is bound by the unchosen NAP, libertarians will have answers. Their answers will differ — some will be more robust than others — but they will have answers. At least I hope so.</p>
<p>Now if we have an unchosen obligation not to aggress against others and that obligation is rooted in certain facts, this raises a new question: Might the facts that impose the unchosen obligation not to aggress also impose <em>other</em> obligations? If one unchosen obligation can be shown to exist, why couldn&#8217;t the same foundation in which that one is rooted produce others?</p>
<p>To the question “Why do we owe it to others not to aggress against them,” I would respond along these lines: because we individually should treat other persons respectfully, that is, as ends in themselves and not merely as means to our own ends. But some libertarians would reject that as too broad because it seems to obligate us to more than just nonaggression. They might answer the question this way: “Because one may use force against another <em>only</em> in defense or retaliation against someone who initiated the use of force.” But this can’t be sufficient because it amounts to a circular argument: To say that one may use force only in response to aggression is in effect merely to restate the nonaggression principle. One shouldn&#8217;t aggress because one shouldn&#8217;t aggress. But the NAP can hardly justify itself.</p>
<p>So we need a real justification for the NAP, and the one I&#8217;ve offered seems like a good start. The NAP is an implication of the obligation to treat persons respectfully, as ends and not merely as means. Of course this also requires justification. Why should we treat other persons respectfully?</p>
<p>Many libertarians, though certainly not all, approach the question of just conduct — specifically, as it relates to the use of force — from egoistic considerations, such as those provided by Ayn Rand. They say we should never aggress against others because doing so would be contrary to our self-interest: the dishonesty required by a life of injustice would be psychologically damaging, and we’d eventually run out of victims.</p>
<p>Socrates and Plato saw a problem with the first part of this answer. If one could act unjustly toward others while <em>appearing</em> to be just, could unjust conduct serve one’s self-interest? Egoistic libertarians can be asked the same question. What if you could lead an unjust life with a guarantee of the appearance of justice? Must dishonesty be damaging? The same people who would say yes to that question, however, would also say that a person who spins a complicated web of lies to keep the Nazis from learning he is harboring Jews in his attic <em>won’t </em>suffer such damage. If that person can escape harm, why not the unjust liar? Saying that one set of lies is for a good cause doesn’t strike me as an adequate answer. How would a good cause save someone from the harm of “faking reality”?</p>
<p>So it seems that a simple self-interest model doesn&#8217;t take us where we want to go: to the unchosen obligation to respect people’s freedom, or more broadly, to treat persons as ends and not merely as means. I would be a little uneasy if a libertarian told me that it is only his self-interest that prevents him from clubbing me on the noggin and making off with my wallet.</p>
<p>And yet, self-interest still might provide an answer. Roderick Long tackles this problem in his extended essay “Reason and Value: Aristotle versus Rand” (<a href="http://www.atlassociety.org/sites/default/files/Reason_Value.pdf">PDF</a>). What Long shows, to my satisfaction at least, is that Rand’s notion of self-interest as expressed in her nonfiction essays is too flimsy to support the libertarian prohibition on aggression and the general injunction to treat people respectfully. To be more precise, Long shows that Rand’s explicit writings on ethics are a tangle of at least three different and inconsistent defenses for the nonaggression principle (one of them Kantian — how’s that for irony?).</p>
<p>Before we get to this, however, we must invoke an important distinction that Long emphasizes: instrumental versus constitutive means to an end. An instrumental means is external to the end. A constitutive means is intrinsic to the end; we can’t imagine the end without it. Long uses the example of a man dressing up for evening out (where “dressing up” includes a necktie). Shopping for a tie is an instrumental means. Wearing the tie is a constitutive means — it is part of what we mean by “dressing up.” One can dress up without shopping for a tie, but one cannot dress up without wearing a tie.</p>
<p>We can look at justice, which includes respect for other persons’ rights, in both ways. Does respect for their rights serve our self-interest <em>merely</em> because we would earn good reputations and others will cooperate with us? (This is <a href="http://oll.libertyfund.org/titles/869#Hobbes_0161_406">Thomas Hobbes’s</a> position.) Or is respecting their rights also a <em>constituent</em> of living a good human life? The answer is crucial. In the first case, one’s self-interest could be served by acting unjustly so long as one could <em>appear</em> to be just. In the second case, one could not flourish by acting unjustly even if one could go undetected. As Socrates suggested, it is preferable to live justly with a reputation for injustice than to live unjustly with a reputation for justice.</p>
<p>Long shows that Rand has both instrumental and constitutive elements in her nonfiction writing on ethics; in some places she says a person’s goal should be survival, while in other places she speaks of survival “qua man.” It isn’t entirely clear whether individuals should aim at the longest possible life regardless of the <em>type</em> of life or at a particular <em>type</em> of life regardless of its length. (Her novels appear to take the latter position — suicide is even contemplated by heroic characters.) If it’s the first, then violating someone’s rights might occasionally be to one’s self-interest. Imagine that at 4 a.m. you pass an alley in a deserted part of town where a man is passed out and a hundred-dollar bill is sticking out of his pocket. The chances of getting caught are zero. Do you take the money? If not, why not? An instrumental model of justice should say to take the money. A constitutive model would not.</p>
<p>It might be said that a rational person acts on rational <em>principles</em> even if in particular cases his or her self-interest is not served. But Long points out that such “rule egoism” ends up being no egoism at all, since the rule is followed regardless of its consequences. This approach is deontological, not teleological, as Rand would want it. So the reply is inadequate.</p>
<p>What are the grounds for accepting the constitutive model of virtue, including justice? Turning to Aristotle, Long writes,</p>
<blockquote><p>For Aristotle, a human being is essentially a <em>logikon</em> animal and a <em>politikon </em>animal.…</p>
<p>To be a rational animal is to be a language-using animal, a conversing animal, a discursive animal. And to live a human life is thus to live a life centered around discourse.</p>
<p>Our nature as <em>logikon</em> is thus closely allied with our nature as <em>politikon</em>. To be a<em>politikon</em> animal is not simply to be an animal that lives in groups or sets up governments; it is to cooperate with others on the basis of discourse about shared ends.…</p>
<p>Being <em>politikon</em> is for Aristotle an expression of being <em>logikon</em>; just as <em>logikon </em>animals naturally conduct their private affairs through reason rather than through unreflective passion, so they naturally conduct their common affairs through public discourse and rational persuasion, rather than through violence.…</p></blockquote>
<p>Thus, Long adds, “To violate the rights of others, then, is to lessen one’s humanity.… To trample on the rights of others is never in our self-interest, because well-being cannot [quoting Aristotle] ‘come about for those who rob and use force.’”</p>
<p>One’s goal is to flourish by achieving excellence in those things that make one human — Aristotle says that “the task of man is a certain life, and this an activity and actions of soul with <em>logos</em>.” One cannot flourish if one lives in a nonhuman way. If this sounds like Rand, it’s because her fictional characters understand it, even if her nonfiction essays do not express it unambiguously.</p>
<p>Long concludes,</p>
<blockquote><p>A truly human life, then, will be a life characterized by reason and intelligent cooperation. (Bees may cooperate after a fashion, but not on the basis of discourse about shared ends.) To a <em>logikon</em> animal, reason has value not only as an instrumental means to other goals but as an intrinsic and constitutive part of a fully human life; and the same holds true for cooperation. The <em>logikon </em>animal, insofar as it genuinely expresses <em>logos</em>, will not deal on cooperative terms with others merely because doing so makes others more likely to contribute instrumentally to the agent’s good; rather, the agent will see a life of cooperation with others as an essential part of his own good.</p></blockquote>
<p>Aristotle’s book on <a href="http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.9.ix.html" target="_blank">friendship</a> in the <em>Nicomachean Ethics</em> beautifully elaborates on this point.</p>
<p>If this is right, we owe respect to others’ humanity, via respect for their rights, because the activity manifesting that respect is a constituent of our own flourishing as <em>logikon </em>and<em> politikon </em>animals. We owe it to ourselves to owe it to others. This Aristotelian insight points to an interpersonal moral realm in which the basic interests of others meld in important ways with our own. “To the extent that we are <em>logikon</em> animals,” Long writes, “participation in a human community, together with a shared pursuit of the human good, is a constitutive part of a truly human life.”</p>
<p>But does this show that we owe anything <em>more</em> than nonaggression? It seems so. We abstain from aggressing against others because, as <em>logikon </em>and <em>politikon </em>animals, we flourish by engaging the humanity of other individuals. Clearly, abstaining from aggression is not the only way to engage their humanity, just as aggression is not the only way to deny their humanity. Thus these Aristotelian considerations entail the obligation to treat others respectfully broadly.</p>
<p>One last question remains: Is this obligation broadly to treat other persons as ends and not merely as means a <em>libertarian</em> matter? It is, at least in this way: The obligation broadly to treat other persons as ends and not merely as means is <em>validated by the same set of facts that validate the nonaggression principle</em>. Nonaggression is simply one application of respect. Thus a libertarian society in which people generally thought that nonaggression was <em>all </em>they owed others would be a society that should fear for its future viability qua libertarian society.</p>
<p>Finally, I’m sure libertarians do not have to be reminded that nonaggressive affronts against persons may be responded to only in nonaggressive ways. Neither governmental nor private force may be deployed to counter peaceful offenses. Why not? Because the rule of proportionality dictates that force may be used only to meet force. In other words, some obligations are en<em>force</em>able and others are not.</p>
<p>(While thinking about this article, I profited mightily by conversations with <a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/B00A8GZ0GK/futuoffreefou-20">Gary Chartier</a>.)</p>
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		<title>Roderick Long: Eudaimonism, Libertarianism, and Science Fiction</title>
		<link>http://c4ss.org/content/26500</link>
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		<pubDate>Fri, 18 Apr 2014 00:00:32 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[James Tuttle]]></dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[Kyle Platt catches up with Prof. Roderick Long before his talk at the University of Oklahoma. They discuss why Eudaimonism is compatible with a libertarian philosophy, who libertarians should read, and themes of liberty in science fiction.]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Kyle Platt catches up with <a href="http://c4ss.org/content/author/berserkrl" target="_blank">Prof. Roderick Long</a> before his talk at the University of Oklahoma. They discuss why Eudaimonism is compatible with a libertarian philosophy, who libertarians should read, and themes of liberty in science fiction.</p>
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		<title>La Contribución de Ayn Rand a la Causa de la Libertad</title>
		<link>http://c4ss.org/content/19450</link>
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		<pubDate>Sat, 01 Jun 2013 20:00:36 +0000</pubDate>
		<dc:creator><![CDATA[Alan Furth ES]]></dc:creator>
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		<description><![CDATA[The following article is translated into Spanish from the English original, written by Roderick T. Long at the Ludwig von Mises Institute. Nacida Alisa Rosenbaum en San Petesburgo, Rusia, el 2 de febrero de 1905, Rand llegaría a ser una de las principales voces del siglo XX a favor de la libertad humana. Después de...]]></description>
				<content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>The following article is translated into Spanish from the English original, <a href="http://mises.org/daily/1738" target="_blank">written by Roderick T. Long at the Ludwig von Mises Institute</a>.</p>
<p>Nacida Alisa Rosenbaum en San Petesburgo, Rusia, el 2 de febrero de 1905, Rand llegaría a ser una de las principales voces del siglo XX a favor de la libertad humana.</p>
<p>Después de vivir la Revolución Rusa y el caos económico y la represión política que trajo (acontecimientos que luego reflejaría en <a href="http://www.casadellibro.com/libro-los-que-vivimos/1150027/2900001195292" target="_blank"><em>Los que Vivimos</em></a>) Rand huyó de la Unión Soviética a Estados Unidos en 1926 para empezar su carrera como guionista, dramaturga y novelista. Dividiendo su tiempo entre Hollywood y Nueva York, la fieramente anticomunista Rand empezó a desarrollar una filosofía de un individualismo ético y filosófico y a conocer a líderes de la libertaria “vieja derecha” como John Flynn, Henry Hazlitt, Rose Wilder Lane, H.L. Mencken, Isabel Paterson, Leonard Read y un compañero refugiado del totalitarismo europeo, el economista austríaco Ludwig von Mises.</p>
<p>El éxito popular de Rand vino con <a href="http://www.casadellibro.com/libro-el-manantial/1222732/2900001280598" target="_blank"><em>El Manantial</em></a> (1943) y <a href="http://www.casadellibro.com/libro-la-rebelion-de-atlas-edicion-sin-censura/1222720/2900001280586" target="_blank"><em>La Rebelión de Atlas</em></a> (1957), dos novelas filosóficas épicas siguiendo el modelo de Dostoievsky que rápidamente le hicieron uno de los autores más polémicos del siglo. La entusiasta audiencia que trajeron estas obras le permitieron construir un movimiento político-filosófico basado en el sistema de pensamiento que ella llamó “objetivismo”, y la atención de Rand desde entonces se dedicó consecuentemente a la no ficción: dedicaría el resto de su carrera a editar una serie de periódicos objetivistas y a escribir ensayos filosóficos, comentarios políticos y crítica cultural.</p>
<p>Rand siempre resaltó la importancia de poner los argumentos políticos en un contexto filosófico más amplio, insistiendo que ella no era “ante todo una defensora del capitalismo, sino del egoísmo” ni “ante todo una defensora del egoísmo, sino de la razón”.</p>
<p>La influencia de Rand en el movimiento libertario es incalculable: a pesar de su propia frecuente antipatía hacia ese movimiento e incluso hacia la palabra “libertario”, Rand desempeñó un papel esencial en ayudar tanto a crear nuevos defensores del laissez faire como a radicalizar a los existentes. Rand animaba a los libertarios a ver su punto de vista como una alternativa al conservadurismo y no una rama de éste y a basar la defensa de la libertad en un principio moral y no sólo en beneficios económicos pragmáticos. La influencia de Rand en la cultura popular es igualmente enorme: una encuesta de “libros más influyentes” de la Biblioteca del Congreso de Estados Unidos frecuentemente citada, ponía a La rebelión de Atlas en segundo lugar sólo detrás de la Biblia.</p>
<p>Rand debía mucho de su éxito a lo poderoso y directo de su estilo de escritura. Era una maestra en lo que uno de mis colegas llama la <em>reductio ad claritatem</em>, la “reducción a la claridad&#8221; (es decir, el método de refutar una postura escribiéndola claramente), como cuando escribe que “si algunos hombres tienen derecho a los productos del trabajo de otros, esto significa que a estos otros se les ha privado de derechos y condenado a un trabajo esclavo”, o cuando resume la opinión de que la percepción humana no es fiable por la naturaleza limitada de nuestros órganos sensoriales como “el hombre es ciego porque tiene ojos, sordo porque tiene oídos”.</p>
<p>Tras la publicación de La rebelión de Atlas, Mises escribió a Rand alabando tanto su “magistral construcción de la trama” como su “convincente análisis de los males que afligen nuestra sociedad”; en otro contexto le llamó “la persona más valiente de América”. Rand a su vez promocionó con entusiasmo las obras de Mises en sus periódicos y declaró que su currículum ideal sería “Aristóteles en filosofía, von Mises en economía, Montessori en educación, Hugo en literatura”. La biógrafa de Rand, Barbara Branden señalaba que</p>
<blockquote><p>desde finales de los cincuenta y durante más de diez años, Ayn empezó una decidida campaña para que se leyera y apreciara la obra [de Mises]: publicó críticas, le citó en artículos y en discursos públicos [y] le recomendó a admiradores de su filosofía. Algunos economistas han dicho que fue en buena parte gracias a los esfuerzos de Ayn el hecho de que la obra de von Mises empezara a llegar a su audiencia potencial. (<a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/038524388X" target="_blank"><em>The Passion of Ayn Rand</em></a>, p. 188.).</p></blockquote>
<p>Una breve relación intelectual con el alumno de Mises Murray Rothbard tuvo menos éxito, empezando con un aprecio mutuo, pero disolviéndose en diferencias ideológicas y personales, aunque Rand y Rothbard compartieran sin embargo el honor de ser expulsados de la derecha “respetable” por un establishment conservador de mentalidad estatista. (El próximo número de primavera de 2005 del <a href="http://aynrandstudies.com/" target="_blank"><em>Journal of Ayn Rand Studies</em></a> está dedicado a explorar las conexiones entre Rand y la Escuela Austríaca e incluye contribuciones de una serie de austríacos contemporáneos).</p>
<p>Como Rand calificó a las grandes empresas de “minoría perseguida” y rechazaba el complejo militar-industrial como “un mito o algo peor”, a menudo se la considera como una ingenua apologista de la élite corporativista, pero ella también condenó el “tipo de empresario que busca ventajas especiales mediante la acción del gobierno” como “los verdaderos beneficiados de la guerra de todas las economías mixtas”, y es fácil olvidar que la mayoría de los personajes empresarios en las novelas de Rand eran villanos estatistas.</p>
<p>Como <a href="http://www.solohq.com/Articles/Sciabarra/Understanding_the_Global_Crisis__Reclaiming_Rands_Radical_Legacy.shtml" target="_blank">nos recuerda Chris Sciabarra</a>, Rand también entendió la relación simbiótica entre el militarismo en el exterior y las políticas neo-fascistas en el interior: en una era en que muchos de sus seguidores eran entusiastas defensores de la intervención militar estadounidense en el extranjero, merece la pena recordar que la propia Rand se opuso a la intervención de Estados Unidos en la Primera Guerra Mundial, la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Corea y Vietnam.</p>
<p>Tal vez el aspecto más controvertido de la filosofía de Rand (su rechazo del altruismo y su adopción del egoísmo ético) sea también uno de los peor entendidos. A pesar de su a veces <a href="http://praxeology.net/unblog11-02.htm#ego" target="_blank">equívoca retórica</a> acerca de “la virtud del egoísmo”, su egoísmo no era defender la búsqueda de los propios intereses a costa de otros, sino más bien rechazar todo el modelo conflictivo de intereses de acuerdo con el cual “la felicidad de un hombre requiere el daño de otro”, a favor de una concepción más antigua y aristotélica del interés propio como excelente funcionamiento humano.</p>
<p>Fue a partir de esos fundamentos aristotélicos como rechazó no sólo la subordinación de los intereses propios a los de otros (y es a esto, más que a la mera benevolencia, a lo que calificaba de “altruismo”) sino asimismo la subordinación de los intereses de otros al propio (a lo que calificaba como “egoísmo sin ego”). Para Rand, el reconocimiento aristotélico de los intereses humanos bien entendidos como racionalmente armoniosos, era la base esencial para una sociedad libre.</p>
<p>Las discusiones sobre Ayn rand a partir de su muerte en 1982 se han centrado habitualmente en su tono dogmático y sus excentricidades personales, rasgos a veces imitados por sus seguidores y satirizados convincentemente por Rothbard en su obra en un acto <a href="http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/mozart.html" target="_blank"><em>Mozart Was a Red</em></a>. Pero como argumenta David Kelley en su libro <a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0765808633" target="_blank"><em>The Contested Legacy of Ayn Rand</em></a>, la contribución intelectual de Ayn Rand, más que ninguna, puede y debe separarse de los caprichos de su personalidad.</p>
<p>En una era en que el libertarismo y el aristotelismo eran suficientemente denigrados como anticuados por separado, Rand tuvo la audacia de defender su fusión sistemática e identificó las raíces del liberalismo ilustrado en la recuperación tomística de Aristóteles en una época en la que esta conexión estaba mucho menos reconocida que hoy en día. (Aunque los seguidores de Rand la han proclamados a veces intempestivamente como la mayor filósofa de todos los tiempos, Rand siempre insistió firmemente en que Aristóteles fue el más grande y Santo Tomás de Aquino el segundo, a pesar de su conocido ateísmo). El que sus versiones concretas del libertarismo y aristotelismo y los términos concretos en que intentó unirlos fueran en definitiva <a href="http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/1577240456" target="_blank">los más defendibles filosóficamente</a>, tal vez sea menos importante que el ejemplo que dio al intentarlo.</p>
<p>En las décadas posteriores a que Rand empezara a construir su sistema filosófico disidente, la ortodoxia filosófica se ha movido en la dirección de Rand. Es mucho más probable hoy que en la década de 1960 que los filósofos profesionales estén de acuerdo con Rand acerca de la franqueza de la precepción sensorial, la relación entre significado y referencia, la incompatibilidad del utilitarismo con los derechos individuales o las perspectivas éticas neo-aristotélicas (o incluso en general una aproximación filosófica neo-aristotélica), y muchas de las dicotomías que ella rechazó (entre empirismo y racionalismo, afirmaciones analíticas y sintéticas, dualismo y materialismo, nominalismo y realismo conceptual, hecho y valor, liberalismo y ética de la virtud) han caído cada vez en un mayor descrédito.</p>
<p>Esta evolución es en buena medida independiente de la propia influencia de Rand (y paradójicamente, deriva en parte del reciente resurgimiento del némesis filosófico de Rand, Immanuel Kant, quien a pesar de las apasionadas denuncias de Rand, es realmente su aliado en la mayor parte de estos temas), pero no del todo, ya que puedo atestiguar, por dos décadas de experiencia en la profesión, que la cantidad de filosóficos académicos que admiten en privado haberse visto influidos decisivamente por Rand es mucho mayor del que pueden encontrarse citándola en sus escritos.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, es un error pensar que la validación del legado de Rand dependa de la aprobación académica. El progreso humano a menudo lo dirige gente fuera o en los márgenes del establishment académico, como por ejemplo los <em>philosophes</em> del siglo XVIII o el renacimiento austríaco del XX. Independientemente de si la academia reconoce o entiende sus logros, la inspiradora visión de la grandeza de la razón y la libertad humanas de Rand ha dejado su huella en el pensamiento moderno.</p>
<p>Aún así, si a alguien le interesa, el reconocimiento investigador de la obra de Rand está actualmente <a href=http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/9929.html>en su momento histórico más alto</a>. Los días en que prácticamente toda discusión sobre Rand era o bien servilmente aduladora o despectivamente de rechazo parecen haber pasado, y el nuevo siglo probablemente asista a una evaluación justa del lugar de Rand en la historia de la filosofía y la causa de la libertad.</p>
<p>Artículo original publicado por Roderick T. Long en el Instituto Ludwig von Mises el 2 de febrero de 2005.</p>
<p>Traducido del inglés por <a href="http://www.amuyshondt.com/?p=407" target="_blank">Mariano Bas Uribe</a>, ligeramente editado por <a href="http://alanfurth-es.com" target="_blank">Alan Furth</a>.</p>
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